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| From the preceding country profiles, it is clear that Australia is a major supplier of cattle and sheep to a diverse group of countries. Australia’s proximity to south east Asia makes it ideally suited to meet the demand for live cattle in that region. In addition, Australia’s status as a country free from foot and mouth disease allows it to export to markets such as Indonesia that have domestic regulations in place banning imports from countries that are not free of foot and mouth disease, including India and Brazil. Demand from the Middle East for sheep, on the other hand, is based principally on Australia’s ability to reliably deliver shipments of live animals of a specified standard. Some of the issues that have promoted live exports rather than trade in meat are discussed in this chapter. These issues are principally demand driven rather than supply driven. That is, they emanate from Australia’s export markets rather than from Australia. The nature of demand for livestock and for meat reflects the diverse cultures that exist within export markets — cultures whose preferences for meat and food in general have developed over time. The stage of economic development of the importing countries has also affected demand for meat and for livestock. For example, the lack of infrastructure for handling meat in south east Asia — in terms of storage and refrigeration — restricts demand for meat. Lastly, religious beliefs in some importing countries play a large part in determining how meat is supplied to its citizens. |
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| Animal welfare | ||
| The Australian Government has invested significant resources in addressing the animal welfare issues associated with trade in live sheep, cattle and other livestock. Despite these efforts, concerns about the handling of livestock before, during and after transit persist. Australia’s livestock exporting industry is closely regulated. The Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry has developed Australian Standards for the Export of Livestock (ASEL). ASEL outlines the requirements that need to be met for live sheep and cattle to be transported. As part of these standards, all exporters must be licensed by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS). In accordance with the Export Control Act, each consignment of livestock must be certified by AQIS prior to export, with exporters obtaining an export permit. Obtaining an export permit requires the provision of a detailed ‘Notice of Intention’ and ‘Consignment Risk Management Plan’. Failure to meet these requirements can result in the loss of licence. Handling facilities for livestock are also regulated. The premises used for preparing livestock for export must be registered with AQIS. Livestock ships must be approved by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) as meeting the requirements of Marine Order 43. Animals that travel by air must meet ASEL requirements as well as International Air Transport Association (IATA) live animal regulations. According to AMSA Marine Order 43, all livestock ships are obliged to provide a continuous supply of water and fodder to the animals on board the ship. The amount of water required for various species is stipulated in ASEL and the calculated quantity is compared with the actual quantity before a health certificate is issued by AQIS. The same is true for fodder, which is normally comprised of pelletised grain/chaff or derivatives (Livecorp 2007). Along with the protocols from ASEL, Australia is also committed to other initiatives that improve the welfare of animals during transit. One example of such an initiative is the investment of $3.5 million to improve the entire live export process chain, such as the infrastructure and training programs for workers in overseas facilities (Live Export Care 2006). |
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| Animal mortality | ||
| Exports to south east Asia are considered short haul voyages, with durations of less than ten days. Shipments to the Middle East take longer than ten days and are considered long haul voyages. According to Livecorp (2007) voyages to the Middle East take between fourteen and twenty-one days, voyages to Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and the rest of south east Asia take between three and seven days and voyages to China, Japan or Korea take between ten and fourteen days. Data on cattle and sheep mortality during sea transport from Australia are collected annually by AMSA from ship masters’ reports. Incorporated in the AMSA Marine Orders 43 are ‘trigger levels’ on mortality rates during long and short haul voyages. If these levels are reached, the ship’s master is obliged by law to report them to AMSA so that an investigation can be initiated. The trigger levels are 2 per cent for sheep, 1 per cent for cattle on long haul voyages and 0.5 per cent for cattle on short haul voyages. The death rate for cattle in the past seven years (figure m) has been less than 1 per cent for both long and short hauls. Of the nearly 600 000 cattle exported from Australia in 2005-06, the mortality rate of those transported for less than ten days was less than 0.10 per cent (AMSA 2007). As explained in Norris and Norman (2006), for cattle that are transported not only to the Middle East but also to south east Asia, the main causes of deaths during transport are heat stroke (particularly for the Bos taurus breeds), trauma and respiratory disease. For sheep that are mainly destined for the Middle East and therefore in transit for more than ten days, the mortality rate is higher than for cattle, although it has been declining since 2000. Since 2003, mortality rates for sheep have been less than 1 per cent (figure n). Approximately 75 per cent of sheep deaths are caused by inanition (weakness, extreme weight loss and decreased metabolism because of insufficient food intake) and salmonellosis (an infection of the digestive tract). According to Norris and Norman (2006), risk factors for these deaths include failure to eat pelleted feed, source of sheep (type of pasture), age, time of year, fatness, duration between leaving the farm and unloading in the Middle East and excessive temperature and relative humidity. |
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| Absence of refrigeration | ||
| In Asia there are different markets for beef that are segmented according to price as an indicator of quality. The higher price segment of the market is serviced by large supermarkets, high end hotels and restaurants. The medium price market is serviced by western style supermarkets, restaurants and US style hamburger chains (located principally in more urban areas). The lower price market is serviced by traditional supermarkets, meat vendors and ‘wet markets’. Wet markets are the traditional meat marketing system in Asia. They are characterised by the sale of fresh meat in open air stalls with little or no refrigeration. In many Asian markets, the fresh meat market is the only option available to consumers, particularly those outside urban areas. Without an adequate supply of cattle to these markets, consumers would purchase an alternative protein source. Chicken has traditionally been the main source of animal protein although, depending on location, fish is also an alternative. Since the early 1990s, growth areas for beef have been in higher and medium priced markets. This has been the direct result of increasing incomes per person in Asian countries (figure o). Despite the rapid pace of economic development in this part of the world in the past fifteen years, storage and refrigeration is not widespread. Refrigeration of meat is generally limited to the abattoirs, wholesalers and retailers that supply the higher and medium priced markets. The availability of refrigerated meat to less affluent urban areas and rural areas is limited. The continued need to meet the demand for beef for each segment of the market is an important element of the domestic policies of south east Asian countries. This was made apparent by the initiatives taken in the early 1990s to develop feedlot sectors in Indonesia and Malaysia. One of the complications of supplying meat to the population as a whole is that the low price segment of the market exists more broadly throughout the country, not just in rural areas but also throughout urban areas. The general absence of refrigeration therefore necessitates that the supply of meat to these areas be carried out through the delivery of live animals that can be slaughtered close to the point of consumption. In the Middle East, the absence of a cold chain is not as important an issue as it is in south east Asia. On average, per person incomes are higher because of the region’s extensive oil resources (figure p). Similarly, the food distribution system is well developed, as is the general capacity of individuals to refrigerate fresh food (Johar 2007). The preference for fresh meat stems more from religion and local customs than from the lack of a cold chain. |
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| Religion | ||
| Some of the demand for live animals reflects religious traditions in export markets. In the Middle East and several south east Asian countries the predominant religion is Islam. Judaism is prominent in Israel. Under both religious traditions there are strict regulations that mandate how an animal must be slaughtered and how it must be treated before and after slaughter. Suppliers of meat, whether domestic or foreign, must abide by these regulations in order to sell into these markets. Some of the requirements under Islamic and Jewish traditions are outlined below. Halal The Muslim faith requires that livestock be slaughtered in a manner consistent with Islamic law. The method is known as ‘halal’, an Arabic word meaning ‘lawful’, whereby every animal is slaughtered according to the Islamic ritual of zabiha. The zabiha ritual entails the slaughtering of animals by a Muslim who blesses the animal as he uses a sharp knife to make a single cut across the neck. By importing live cattle from Australia, livestock can be slaughtered according to halal requirements in local abattoirs that are already approved for this method. Australian abattoirs exporting beef to the principally Muslim countries of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Middle East must all be certified as meeting halal requirements. In 2006, Australia exported 24 000 tonnes of beef and veal valued at $107.5 million to predominantly Muslim countries (MLA 2007). In that year halal beef and veal accounted for only 2.2 per cent of total beef and veal exports (ABS 2007). Halal beef exports peaked in 2002, dropping significantly by 2004 owing to a fall in exports to Indonesia (figure q). Since 2004, total halal beef exports have slowly been increasing. In 2006, the largest importer of halal beef continued to be Indonesia, which imported nearly 16 000 tonnes, with a total value of $51 million. In 2006-07 Australia exported 87 000 tonnes of sheep meat valued at $276 million to predominantly Muslim countries (ABS 2007), all produced according to halal requirements. Those exports accounted for approximately 22 per cent of total sheep meat exports (ABS 2007). Sheep meat exports to principally Muslim countries dropped significantly in 2003-04 when Saudi Arabia halted all imports from Australia (figure r). Shipments resumed in 2005 and total sheep meat imports peaked in 2006-07, reflecting demand from both Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, which jointly imported 53 000 tonnes of sheep meat, with a total value of $175 million. Animals that are slaughtered according to halal rituals in Australia must meet the following conditions:  processing operations must have an Australian Government Supervised Muslim Slaughter program processors must have a halal program that complies with the Australian Government Supervised Muslim Slaughter requirements the facility must be inspected and be suitable for halal slaughter and/or production — all inspections are carried out by the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service and recognised Islamic organisations the processor must only employ registered Muslim slaughtermen non-halal product must not be processed in the same areas as halal product; similarly, halal and non-halal product must be separated and identified at all times equipment that has been in contact with non-halal product must be thoroughly cleaned all additives and ingredients used in any meat product must be halal only recognised Islamic organisations can certify halal meat and meat products for all exports (Aus-Meat Limited 1998). Many Muslim countries are increasing their demands on the controls and procedures involved in producing halal meat. In Australia, all food processing operations must apply for halal accreditation with an approved Islamic organisation, for example the Halal Certification Authority. Proper accreditation is no guarantee that shipments will always be allowed. Some concerns about the proper slaughter of halal beef halted exports to Malaysia in August 2005. Complaints that slaughter methods did not meet Islamic standards at the Norvic Food abattoir in Wodonga, Victoria, were retracted in 2006 once religious and technical auditors from Malaysia inspected the site. Two other abattoirs, Tasman Meats in Brooklyn in Victoria and Stanbroke abattoir at Grantham in Queensland have since also been approved and exports to Malaysia have resumed (ABC Rural 2006). The largest sheep meat processor in Australia is Fletcher International, which operates a large abattoir in Albany, Western Australia, and another in Dubbo, New South Wales. Because of the diverse countries to which Fletcher International ships sheep meat, all the animals are slaughtered halal so that demand for sheep meat by Muslims and non-Muslims in all markets can be met without requiring separate facilities. Kosher meat Judaism requires that all foods be kosher, which means that it must meet all rules and standards of the Jewish faith. Kosher requirements for slaughtering livestock include the use of special equipment, such as a turning box (used to hold the animal still and at ninety degrees), as well as a larger slaughter team than would be used in western slaughter facilities. Some members of the slaughter team must be representatives of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. The Rabbinate will approve a foreign slaughter plant as a source of imported meat following a visit by representatives of the Foreign Slaughter Division. These representatives ensure that the plant is suitable for kosher slaughter. The Rabbinate will only examine plants that have received prior approval from the Israel Veterinary Services (USDA 2001). Kosher slaughter involves not only a particular method of slaughter but also a post slaughter judgment about the health of the animal. USDA (2001) lists some of the requirements: the use of an electric prod to herd animals into the slaughtering stand is forbidden, as is an electric current to accelerate the drainage of blood after slaughter stunning the animal prior to slaughter is forbidden the animal must be in a prone position (achieved with the assistance of a turning box) when slaughtered each animal must be numbered consecutively prior to the separation of the head from the carcass there must be a twofold examination of the animal’s lungs — the first while still intact in the carcass and the second on removal from the carcass if the carcass is deemed to be of kosher status, it is stamped kosher and if it is graded as a higher quality meat, it is also stamped glatt cold storage of the slaughtered kosher carcasses must be separate from non-kosher meat. |